Deglaciation of the Laurentide Ice Sheet from the Last Glacial Maximum

Authors

  • Ch.R. Stokes Department of Geography, Durham University

DOI:

https://doi.org/10.18172/cig.3237

Keywords:

Laurentide Ice Sheet, Last Glacial Maximum, deglaciation, ice streams

Abstract

The last deglaciation of the Laurentide Ice Sheet (LIS) was associated with major reorganisations in the ocean-climate system and its retreat also represents a valuable analogue for understanding the rates and mechanisms of ice sheet collapse. This paper reviews the characteristics of the LIS at its Last Glacial Maximum (LGM) and its subsequent deglaciation, with particular emphasis on the pattern and timing of ice margin recession and the driving mechanisms of retreat. The LIS initiated over the eastern Canadian Arctic ~116-110 ka (MIS 5d), but its growth towards the LGM was highly non-linear and punctuated by several episodes of expansion (~65 ka: MIS 4) and retreat (~50-40 ka: MIS 3). It attained its maximum position around 26-25 ka (MIS 2) and existed for several thousand years as an extensive ice sheet with major domes over Keewatin, Foxe Basin and northern Quebec/Labrador. It extended to the edge of the continental shelf at its marine margins and likely stored a sea-level equivalent of around 50 m and with a maximum ice surface ~3,000 m above present sea-level. Retreat from its maximum was triggered by an increase in boreal summer insolation, but areal shrinkage was initially slow and the net surface mass balance was positive, indicating that ice streams likely played an important role in reducing the ice sheet volume, if not its extent, via calving at marine margins. Between ~16 and ~13 ka, the ice sheet margin retreated more rapidly, particularly in the south and west, whereas the north and east underwent only minimal recession. The overall rate of retreat decreased during the Younger Dryas (YD), when several localised readvances occurred. Following the YD, the ice sheet retreated two to five times faster than previously, and this was primarily driven by enhanced surface melting while ice streams reduced in effectiveness. Final deglaciation of the Keewatin and Foxe Domes, left a remnant Labrador Dome that disappeared ~6.7 ka.

Downloads

Download data is not yet available.

References

Abe-Ouchi, A., Saito, F., Kawamura, K., raymo, M.E., Okuno, J., Takahashi, K., Blatter, H. 2013. Insolation-driven 100,000-year glacial cycles and hysteresis of ice-sheet volume. Nature, 500, 190-194. http://doi.org/10.1038/nature12374.

Abe-Ouchi, A., Saito, F., Kageyama, M., Braconnot, P., Harrison, S.P., Lambexk, K., Otto-Bliesner, B.L., Peltier, W.R., Tarasov, L., Peterschmitt, J-Y., Takahashi, K. 2015. Ice-configuration in the CMIP5/PMIP3 Last Glacial Maximum experiments. Geoscientific Model Development, 8, 3621-3637. http://doi.org/10.5194/gmd-8-3621-2015.

Allard, G., Roy, M., Ghaleb, B., Richard, P.J.H., Larouche, A.C., Veillette, J.J., Parent, M. 2012. Constraining the age of the last interglacial-glacial transition in the Hudson Bay lowlands (Canada) using UeTh dating of buried wood. Quaternary Geochronology 7, 37-47. http://doi.org/10.1016/j.quageo.2011.09.004.

Alley, R.B. 1991. Deforming-bed origin for southern Laurentide till sheets? Journal of Glaciology 37 (125), 67-76. http://doi.org/10.1017/S0022143000042817.

Alley, R.B., Blankenship, D.D., Bentley, C.R., Rooney, S.T. 1986. Deformation of till beneath ice stream B, West Antarctica. Nature, 322, 57-59. http://doi.org/10.1038/322057a0.

Alley, R.B., Mayewski, P.A., Sowers, T., Stuiver, M., Taylor, K.C., Clark, P.U. 1997. Holocene climatic instability: a prominent, widespread event 8200 yr ago. Geology 25, 483-486. http://doi.org/10.1130/0091-7613(1997)025<0483:HCIAPW>2.3.CO;2.

Amos, C.L., Knoll, R. 1987. The Quaternary sediments of Banquereau, Scotian Shelf. Geological Society of America Bulletin, 99, 244-260. http://doi.org/10.1130/0016-7606(1987)99<244:TQSOBS>2.0.CO2;2.

Amos, C.L., Miller, A.A.L. 1990. The Quaternary stratigraphy of southwest Sable Island Bank, eastern Canada. Geological Society of America Bulletin, 102, 915-934. http://doi.org/10.1130/0016-7606(1990)102<0915:TQSOSS>2.3.CO;2.

Andrews, J. T. 1969. The pattern and interpretation of restrained, post-glacial and residual rebound in the area of Hudson Bay. In: P.J. Hood (Ed.), Earth Science Symposium on Hudson Bay. Geological Survey of Canada Paper 68-53, p. 49.

Andrews, J.T. 1973. The Wisconsin Laurentide Ice Sheet: dispersal centres, problems of rates of retreat, and climatic implications. Arctic and Alpine Research, 5 (3), 185-199.

Andrews, J.T. 1998. Abrupt changes (Heinrich events) in late Quaternary North Atlantic marine environments: a history and review of data and concepts. Journal of Quaternary Science 13 (1), 3-16.

Andrews, J.T. 2006. The Laurentide Ice Sheet: a review of history and processes. In: P.G. Knight (Ed.), Glacier Science and Environmental Change. Blackwell Publishing, UK, p. 201-207.

Andrews, J.T. Mahaffy, M.A. 1976. Growth rates of the Laurentide Ice Sheet and sea level lowering (with emphasis on the 115,000 B.P. sea level low). Quaternary Research 6, 167-183.

Andrews, J.T., Miller, G.H. 1972. Quaternary history of northern Cumberland Peninsula, Baffin Island, N.W.T., Canada. Part IV: maps of present glaciation limits and lowest equilibrium line altitude for north and south Baffin Island. Arctic and Alpine Research, 4, 45-59.

Andrews, J.T., Tedesco, K. 1992. Detrital carbonate-rich sediments, northwestern Labrador Sea: implications for ice-sheet dynamics and iceberg rafting (Heinrich) events in the North Atlantic. Geology, 20 (12), 1087-1090. http://doi.org/10.1130/0091-7613(1992)020<1087-DCRSNL>2.3.CO;2.

Andrews, J.T., MacLean, B. 2003. Hudson Strait ice streams: a review of stratigraphy, chronology and links with North Atlantic Heinrich events. Boreas 32, 4-17. http://doi.org/10.1080/03009480310001010.

Andrews, J.T., Kirby, M.E., Jennings, A.E., Barber, D.C. 1998. Late Quaternary stratigraphy, chronology, and depositional processes on the SE Baffin Island slope, detrital carbonate and Heinrich events: implications for onshore glacial history. Géographie Physique et Quaternaire 52, 91-105.

Andrews, J.T., Jennings, A.E., MacLean, B. 2001. Late Quaternary stratigraphy of Hatton and Resolution basins, east of Hudson Strait. In: B. MacLean (Ed.), Marine Geology of Hudson Strait and Ungava Bay, Eastern Arctic Canada: Late Quaternary Sediments, Depositional Environments, and Late Glacial-Deglacial History Derived from Marine and Terrestrial Studies. Geological Survey of Canada Bulletin 566, 57-64.

Anonymous 1970. Last throes of Laurentide Ice Sheet. Nature 225 (5229), p. 224.

Argus, D.F., Peltier, W.R. 2010. Constraining models of postglacial rebound using space geodesy: a detailed assessment ofmodel ICE-5G (VM2) and its relatives. Geophysical Journal International, 181, 697-723. http://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-246X.2010.04562.x.

Bamber, J.L., Vaughan, D.G., Joughin, I. 2000. Widespread complex flow in the interior of the Antarctic Ice Sheet. Science, 287 (5456), 1248-1250. http://doi.org/10.1126/science.287.5456.1248.

Barber, D.C., Dyke, A., Hillaire-Marcel, C., Jennings, A.E., Andrews, J.T., Kerwin, M.W., Bilodeau, G., McNeely, R., Southon, J., Morehead, M.D., Gagnon, J.-M. 1999. Forcing of the cold event of 8,200 years ago by catastrophic drainage of Laurentide lakes. Nature 400, 344-348. http://doi.org/10.1038/22504.

Barnett, P.J. 1992. Quaternary geology of Ontario. In: P.C. Thurston, H.R. Williams, R.H. Sutcliffe, G.M. Scott, (Eds.), Geology of Ontario. Toronto, Ontario Geological Survey, Special Volume 4, 1011-1088.

Bassis, J.N., Petersen, S.V., Cathles, L.M. 2017. Heinrich events triggered by ocean forcing and modulated by isostatic adjustment. Nature 542, 332-334. http://doi.org/10.1038/nature21069.

Beierle, B., Smith, D.G., 1998. Severe drought in the early Holocene (10,000-6800 BP) interpreted from lake sediment cores, southwestern Alberta. Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology, 140, 75-83. http://doi.org/10.1016/S0031-0182(98)00044-3.

Beget, J. 1987. Low profile of the northwest Laurentide map sheets. Arctic and Alpine Research 19, 81–87.

Bell, R. 1884. Observations on geology, minerology, zoology and botany of the Labrador coast, Hudson’s Strait and Bay. Canada, Geological Survey, Report of Progress, 1882-83-84, Part DD.

Bell, R. 1895. The Labrador Peninsula. Scottish Geographical Magazine 11 (7), 335-361.

Blake Jr., W. 1970. Studies of glacial history in arctic Canada. I. Pumice, radiocarbon dates, and differential postglacial uplift in the eastern Queen Elizabeth Islands. Canadian Journal of Earth Sciences 7, 634-664.

Blake Jr., W. 1992. Shell-bearing till along Smith Sound, Ellesmere Island–Greenland: age and significance. Sveriges Geologiska Undersoekning, Series Ca 81, 51-58.

Blake Jr., W. 1993. Holocene emergence along the Ellesmere Island coasts of northernmost Baffin Bay. Norsk Geologisk Tiddsskrift 73, 147-160.

Bluemle, J.P., Lord, L.M., Hunke, N.T. 1993. Exceptionally long, narrow drumlins formed in subglacial cavities, North Dakota. Boreas 22, 15-24.

Bond, G., Heinrich, H., Broecker, W., Labeyrie, L., Mcmanus, J., Andrews, J., Huon, S., Jantschik, R., Clasen, S., Simet, C., Tedesco, K., Klas, M., Bonani, G., Ivy, S. 1992. Evidence for massive discharges of icebergs into the North-Atlantic ocean during the last glacial period. Nature, 360 (6401), 245-249.

Bond, G., Showers, W., Cheseby, M., Lotti, R., Almasi, P., deMenocal, P., Priore, P., Cullen, H., Hajda, I., Bonani, G. 1997. A pervasive millennial-scale cycle in North Atlantic Holocene and glacial climates. Science 278, 1257-1266. http://doi.org/10.1126/science.278.5341.1257.

Bonifay, D., Piper, D.J.W., 1988. Probable Late Wisconsinan ice margin on the upper continental slope off St. Pierre Bank, eastern Canada. Canadian Journal of Earth Sciences, 25, 853-865.

Boulton, G.S., Hindmarsh, R.C.A. 1987. Sediment deformation beneath glaciers: Rheology and glaciological consequences. Journal of Geophysical Research 92, 9059-9082.

Boulton, G.S., Clark, C.D. 1990a. A highly mobile Laurentide Ice Sheet revealed by satellite images of glacial lineations. Nature 346, 813e817.

Boulton, G.S., Clark, C.D. 1990b. The Laurentide Ice Sheet through the last glacial cycle - the topology of drift lineations as a key to the dynamic behaviour of former ice sheets. Transactions of the Royal Society of Edinburgh – Earth Sciences, 81, 327-347.

Boulton, G.S., Smith, G.D., Jones, A.S., Newsome, J. 1985. Glacial geology and glaciology of the last mid-latitude ice sheets. Journal of the Geological Society of London 142, 4467-474.

Briner, J.P., Miller, G.H., Davis, P.T., Finkel, R.C. 2006. Cosmogenic radionuclides from fjord landscapes support differential erosion by overriding ice sheets. Geological Society of America Bulletin 118, 406-420. http://doi.org/10.1130/B25716.1.

Briner, J.P., Bini, A.C., Anderson, R.S. 2009. Rapid early Holocene retreat of a Laurentide outlet glacier through an Arctic fjord. Nature Geoscience 2, 496-499. http://doi.org/10.1038/ngeo556.

Broecker, W.S., Kennett, J., Flower, B., Teller, J., Trumbore, S., Bonani, G., Wolfli, W. 1989. Routing of meltwater from the Laurentide Ice Sheet during the Younger Dryas cold episode. Nature, 341, 318-321. http://doi.org/10.1038/341318a0.

Brookes, I.A., 2007. First recognition of a Laurentide Ice Stream: Robert Bell on Hudson Strait. Géographie Physique et Quaternaire 61 (2-3), 211-216.

Bryson, R.A., Wendland, W.M., Ives, J.D., Andrews, J.T. 1969. Radiocarbon ischrones on the disintegration of the Laurentide Ice Sheet. Arctic and Alpine Research 1 (1), 1-13.

Budd, W.F., Smith, I.N. 1981. The growth and retreat of ice sheets in response to orbital radiation changes. In: I. Allison (Ed.), Sea level, Ice, and Climatic Change, International Association of Hydrological Sciences Publication 131, 369-409.

Carlson, A.E., Winsor, K. 2012. Northern Hemisphere ice-sheet response to past climate warming. Nature Geoscience, 5, 607-613. http://doi.org/10.1038/ngeo1528.

Carlson, A.E., Clark, P.U. 2012. Ice sheet sources of sea level rise and freshwater discharge during the last deglaciation. Reviews of Geophysics 50 (4), 4007-4072. http://doi.org/10.1029/2011RG000371.

Carlson, A.E., Clark, P.U., Raisbeck, G.M., Brook, E.J., 2007. Rapid Holocene deglaciation of the Labrador sector of the Laurentide ice sheet. Journal of Climate 20, 5126-5133. http://doi.org/10.1175/JCLI4273.1.

Carlson, A.E., LeGrande, A.N., Oppo, D.W., Came, R.E., Schmidt, G.A., Anslow, F.S., Licciardi, J.M., Obbink, E.A. 2008. Rapid early Holocene deglaciation of the Laurentide Ice Sheet. Nature Geoscience 1, 620-624. http://doi.org/10.1038/ngeo285.

Carlson, A.E., Anslow, F.S., Obbink, E.A., LeGrande, A.N., Ullman, D.J., Licciardi, J.M. 2009a. Surface-melt driven Laurentide Ice Sheet retreat during the early Holocene. Geophys. Res. Lett., 36, L24502. http://doi.org/10.1029/2009GL040948.

Carlson, A.E., Clark, P.U., Haley, B.A., Klinkhammer, G.P. 2009b. Routing of western Canadian Plains runoff during the 8.2 ka cold event. Geophysical Research Letters 36, L14704. http://doi.org/10.1029/2009GL038778.

Catto, N.R., Liverman, D.G.E., Bobrowsky, P.T., Rutter, N.W. 1996. Laurentide, Cordilleran, and Montane glaciation in the western Peace River-Grande Prairie region, Alberta and British Columbia. Quaternary International, 32, 21-32. http://doi.org/10.1016/1040-6182(95)00061-5.

Chamberlin, T. C. 1913. Map of North America during the great ice age. Rand McNally & Co., Chicago. 57 x 40 inches. Scale: 1 inch = 104 miles. Colored.

Clark, C.D. 1993. Mega‐scale glacial lineations and cross‐cutting ice‐flow landforms. Earth Surface Processes and Landforms 18 (1), 1-29.

Clark, C.D., Stokes, C.R. 2001. Extent and basal characteristics of the M'Clintock Channel Ice Stream. Quaternary International 86 (1), 81-101. http://doi.org/10.1016/S1040-6182(01)00052-0.

Clark, P.U., Josenhans, H.W. 1990. Reconstructed ice-flow patterns and ice limits using drift pebble lithology, outer Nachvak Fiord, northern Labrador: discussion. Canadian Journal of Earth Sciences 27, 1002-1006.

Clark, P.U., Clague, J.J., Currey, B.B., Dreimanis, A., Hicock, S.R., Miller, G.H., Berger, G.W., Eyles, N., Lamothe, M., Miller, B.B., Mott, R.J., Oldale, R.N., Stea, R.R., Szabo, J.P., Thorleifson, L.H., Vincent, J.-S. 1993. Initiation and development of the Laurentide and Cordilleran ice sheets following the last interglaciation. Quaternary Science Reviews 12 (2), 79-114.

Clark, P.U., Licciardi, J.M., MacAyeal, D.R., Jenson, J.W. 1996. Numerical reconstruction of a soft-bedded Laurentide Ice Sheet during the last glacial maximum. Geology 24 (8), 679-682.

Clark, P.U., Marshall, S.J., Clarke, G.K.C., Hostetler, S.W., Licciardi, J.M., Teller, J.T. 2001. Freshwater forcing of abrupt climate change during the last glaciation. Science 293, 283-287. http://doi.org/10.1126/science.1062517.

Clark, P.U., Dyke, A.S., Shakun, J.D., Carlson, A.E., Clark, J., Wohlfarth, B., Mitrovica, J.X., Hostetler, S.W., McCabe, A. 2009. The Last Glacial Maximum. Science, 325, 710-714. http://doi.org/10.1126/science.1172873.

Clayton, L., Moran, S.R. 1982. Chronology of Late Wisconsin glaciation in middle North America. Quaternary Science Reviews 1, 55-82.

Clayton, L., Teller, J. T., Attig, J. W. 1985. Surging of the southwestern part of the Laurentide Ice Sheet. Boreas 14, 235-241.

CLIMAP Project Members 1976. The surface of ice-age earth. Science 191 (4232), 1131-1137.

Coleman, A.P. 1920. Extent and thickness of the Labrador Ice Sheet. Geological Society of America, Bulletin 31, 319-328.

Colleoni, F., Wekerle, C., Näslund, J-O., Brandefelt, J., Masina, S. 2016. Constraint on the penultimate glacial maximum Northern Hemisphere ice topography (≈ 140 kyrs BP). Quaternary Science Reviews 137, 97-112. http://doi.org/10.1016/j.quascirev.2016.01.024.

Condron, A., Winsor, P. 2012. Meltwater routing and the Younger Dryas. PNAS 109 (49), 19928-19933. http://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1207381109.

Cutler, K.B., Edwards, R.L., Taylor, F.W., Cheng, H., Adkins, J., Gallup, C.D., Cutler, P.M., Burr, G.S., Bloomo, A.L. 2003. Rapid sea-level fall and deep-ocean temperature change since the last interglacial period. Earth and Planetary Science Letters 206, 253-271. http://doi.org/10.1016/S0012-821X(02)01107-X.

Cutler, P.I., Mickelson, D.M., Colgan, P.M., MacAyeal, D.R., Parizek, B.R. 2001. Influence of the Great Lakes on the dynamics of the southern Laurentide Ice sheet: numerical experiments. Geology 29 (11), 1039-1042. http://doi.org/10.1130/0091-7613(2001)028<1039:IOGTLO>2.0.CO;2.

Dalton, A.S., Finkelstein, S.A., Barnett, P.J., Forman, S.L. 2016. Constraining the Late Pleistocene history of the Laurentide Ice Sheet by dating the Missinaibi Formation, Hudson Bay Lowlands, Canada. Quaternary Science Reviews 146, 288-299. http://doi.org/10.1016/j.quascirev.2016.06.015.

Daly, R.A. 1902. The geology of the northeast coast of Labrador. Harvard University Museum of Comparative Zoology Bulletin 38, 205-270.

De Angelis, H., Kleman, J. 2005. Palaeo-ice streams in the northern Keewatin sector of the Laurentide ice sheet. Annals of Glaciology 42, 135-144. http://doi.org/10.3189/172756405781812925.

De Angelis, H., Kleman, J. 2007. Palaeo-ice streams in the Foxe/Baffin sector of the Laurentide Ice Sheet. Quaternary Science Reviews 26 (9-10), 1313-1331. http://doi.org/10.1016/j.quascirev.2007.02.010.

Denton, G.H., Hughes, T. 1981. The Last Great Ice Sheets. Wiley-Interscience, New York, 484 pp.

Deschamps, P., Durand, N., Bard, E., Hamelin, B., Camoin, G., Thomas, A.L., Henderson, G.M.. Okuno, J., Yokoyama, Y. 2012. Ice-sheet collapse and sea-level rise at the Bølling warming 14,600 years ago. Nature 483, 559-564. http://doi.org/10.1038/nature10902.

Dixon, E.J. 2013. Late Pleistocene colonization of North America from Northeast Asia: new insights from large-scale paleogeographic reconstructions. Quaternary International 285, 57-67. http://doi.org/10.1016/j.quaint.2011.02.027.

Donn, W. L., Farrand, W. R., Ewing, M. 1962. Pleistocene ice volumes and sea-level lowering. Journal of Geology 70, 206-214. .

Dredge, L.A., Thorleifson, L.H. 1987. The Middle Wisconsinan history of the Laurentide Ice Sheet. Géographie Physique et Quaternaire 41 (2), 215-235.

Dredge, L.A., Cowan, W.R. 1989. Quaternary geology of the southwestern Canadian Shield. In: R.J. Fulton (Ed.), Quaternary Geology of Canada and Greenland. Geological Survey of Canada, Ottawa, pp. 214-235.

Dutton, A., Carlson, A.E., Long, A.J., Milne, G.A., Clark, P.U., DeConto, R., Horton, B.P., Rahmstorf, S., Raymo, M.E. 2015. Sea-level rise due to polar ice-sheet mass loss during past warm periods. Science 349, p. 153. http://doi.org/10.1126/science.aaa4019.

Dyke, A.S. 1984. Quaternary geology of Boothia Peninsula and northern District of Keewatin, central Canadian Arctic. Geological Survey of Canada Memoir 407, 26 pp.

Dyke, A.S. 1999. The last glacial maximum of Devon Island, Arctic Canada: support for an Innuitian Ice Sheet. Quaternary Science Reviews, 18, 393–420. http://doi.org/10.1016/S0277-3791(98)00005-5.

Dyke, A.S. 2004. An outline of North American deglaciation with emphasis on central and northern Canada. In: J. Ehlers, P.L. Gibbard, (Eds.), Quaternary Glaciations-extent and Chronology, Part II. Elsevier Science and Technology Books, Amsterdam, pp. 371-406.

Dyke, A.S., Prest, V.K. 1987. Late Wisconsinan and Holocene history of the Laurentide Ice Sheet. Géographie Physique et Quaternaire 41 (2), 237-263.

Dyke, A.S., Morris, T.F. 1988. Canadian landform examples. 7. Drumlin fields, dispersal trains, and ice streams in Arctic Canada. Canadian Geographer 32 (1), 86-90.

Dyke, A.S., Savelle, J.M. 2000. Major end moraines of Younger Dryas age on Wollaston Peninsula, Victoria Island, Canadian Arctic: implications for paleoclimate and for formation of hummocky moraine. Canadian Journal of Earth Sciences 37, 601-619. http://doi.org/10.1139/e99-118.

Dyke, A.S., Dredge, L.A., Vincent, J.-S. 1982. Configuration and dynamics of the Laurentide Ice Sheet during the Late Wisconsin maximum. Géographie Physique et Quaternaire 36 (1-2), 5-14.

Dyke, A.S., Andrews, J.T., Clark, P.U., England, J.H., Miller, G.H., Shaw, J., Veillette, J.J., 2002. The Laurentide and Innutian ice sheets during the Last Glacial Maximum. Quaternary Science Reviews 21, 9-31. http://doi.org/10.1016/S0277-3791(01)00095-6.

Dyke, A.S., Moore, A., Robertson, L. 2003. Deglaciation of North America. Geological Survey of Canada Open File 1574.

England, J.H. 1976a. Postglacial isobases and uplift curves from the Canadian and Greenland High Arctic. Arctic and Alpine Research, 8 (l), 61-78.

England, J.H. 1976b. Late Quaternary glaciation of the eastern Queen Elizabeth Islands, N.W.T, Canada: Alternative models. Quaternary Research 6, 185-202.

England, J.H. 1999. Coalescent Greenland and Innuitian ice during the last glacial maximum: revising the quaternary of the Canadian high arctic. Quaternary Science Reviews 18, 421-456. http://doi.org/10.1016/S0277-3791(98)00070-5.

England, J.H., Smith, I.R., Evans, D.J.A. 2000. The last glaciation of east-central Ellesmere Island, Nunavut: ice dynamics, deglacial chronology, and sea level change. Canadian Journal of Earth Sciences 37, 1355-1371. http://doi.org/10.1139/e00-060.

England, J.H., Furze, M.F.A., Doupé, J.P. 2009. Revision of the NW Laurentide Ice Sheet: implications for paleoclimate, the northeast extremity of Beringia, and Arctic Ocean sedimentation. Quaternary Science Reviews 28, 1573-1596. http://doi.org/10.1016/j.quascirev.2009.04.006.

Eriksson, A., Betti, L., Friend, A.D., Lycett, S.J., Singarayer, J.S., von Cramon-Taubadel, N., Valdes, P.J., Balloux, F., Manica, A. 2012. Late Pleistocene climate change and the global expansion of anatomically modern humans. PNAS 109, 16089-16094. http://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1209494109.

Evans, D.J.A., Clark, C.D., Rea, B.R. 2008. Landform and sediment imprints of fast glacier flow in the southwest Laurentide Ice Sheet. Journal of Quaternary Science 23 (3), 249-272. http://doi.org/10.1002/jqs.1141.

Eyles, N. 2012. Rock drumlins and megaflutes of the Niagara Escarpment, Ontario, Canada: a hard bed landform assemblage cut by the Saginaw–Huron Ice Stream. Quaternary Science Reviews 55, 34-49. http://doi.org/10.1016/j.quascirev.2012.09.001.

Eyles, N., Putkinen, N. 2014. Glacially-megalineated limestone terrain of Anticosti Island, Gulf of St. Lawrence, Canada; onset zone of the Laurentian Channel Ice Stream. Quaternary Science Reviews 88, 125-134. http://doi.org/10.1016/j.quascirev.2014.01.015.

Falconer, G., Ives, J.D., Løken, O.H., Andrews, J.T. 1965. Major end moraines in eastern and central Arctic Canada. Geographical Bulletin 7 (2), 137-153.

Fisher, D.A., Reeh, N., Langley, K.,1985. Objective reconstructions of the Late Wisconsinan Laurentide Ice Sheet and the significance of deformable beds. Géographie Physique et Quaternaire 39 (3), 229-238.

Fisher, T.G., Smith, D.G. 1994. Glacial Lake Agassiz: its northwest maximum extent in Saskatchewan (Emerson phase). Quaternary Science Reviews 13, 845-858. http://doi.org/10.1016/0277-3791(94)90005-1.

Fisher, T.G., Lowell, T.V. 2012. Testing northwest drainage from Lake Agassiz using extant ice margin and strandline data. Quaternary International 260, 106-114. http://doi.org/10.1016/j.quaint.2011.09.018.

Fisher, T.G., Smith, D.G., Andrews, J.T. 2002. Preboreal oscillation caused by a glacial Lake Agassiz flood. Quaternary Science Reviews 21, 873-878. http://doi.org/10.1016/S0277-3791(01)00148-2.

Flint, R.F. 1943. Growth of the North American Ice Sheet during the Wisconsin Age. Geological Society of America, Bulletin 54, 352-362.

Flint, R.F. 1947. Glacial Geology and the Pleistocene Epoch. John Wiley, New York.

Flint, R.F. 1971. Glacial and Quaternary Geology. John Wiley, New York.

Flint, R.F., Demorest, M., Washburn, A.L. 1942. Glaciation of the Shickshock Mountains, Gaspé, Peninsula. Geological Society of America, Bulletin 53, 1211-1230.

Flint, R.F., et al., 1945. Glacial Map of North America. Geological Society of America, Special Paper 60.

Forbes, D.L., Boyd, R., Shaw, J. 1991. Late Quaternary sedimentation and sea-level changes on the inner Scotian Shelf. Continental Shelf Research 11, 1155-1179.

Fulton, R.J. 1989. Quaternary Geology of Canada and Greenland. Geological Survey of Canada, Geology of Canada, No. 1, 839 pp.

Gipp, M.R. 1994. Late Wisconsinan glaciation of Emerald Basin, Nova Scotia. Canadian Journal of Earth Sciences 31, 554-566.

Gipp, M.R., Piper, D.J.W. 1989. Chronology of Late Wisconsinan glaciation, Emerald Basin, Scotian Shelf. Canadian Journal of Earth Sciences 26, 333-335.

Goebel, T., Waters, M.R., O’Rourke, D.H. 2008. The Late Pleistocene dispersal of modern humans in the Americas. Science 319, 1497-1502. http://doi.org/10.1126/science.115.3569.

Gosse, J., Grant, D.R., Klein, J., Lawn, B. 1995. Cosmogenic 10Be and 26Al constraints on weathering zone genesis, ice cap basal conditions, and Long Range Mountain Newfoundland) glacial history. Programme, Abstracts, Field Guides, CANQUA CGRG Joint Meeting, St. John’s, CA19.

Gowan, E.J. 2013. An assessment of the minimum timing of ice free conditions of the western Laurentied Ice Sheet. Quaternary Science Reviews 75, 100-113. http://doi.org/10.1016/j.quascirev.2013.06.001.

Gregoire, L.J., Payne, A.J., Valdes, P.J. 2012. Deglacial rapid sea level rises caused by ice sheet saddle collapses. Nature 487, 219-222. http://doi.org/10.1038/nature11257.

Gregoire, L.J., Otto-Bliesner, B., Valdes, P.J., Ivanovic, R. 2015a. Abrupt Bølling warming and ice saddle collapse contributions to the Meltwater Pulse 1a rapid sea level rise. Geophysical Research Letters, 43, 9130-9137, doi: 10.1002/2016GL070356.

Gregoire, L.J., Valdes, P.J., Payne, A.J. 2015b. The relative contribution of orbital forcing and greenhouse gases to the North American deglaciation. Geophysical Research Letters, 42, doi: 10.1002/2015GL066005.

Hardy, L. 1982. Le Wisconsinien supérieur à l’est de la baie James (Québec). Naturaliste Canadien, 109, 333-351.

Harington, C.R. 1989. Pleistocene vertebrate localities in the Yukon. In: L.D. Carter, T.D. Hamilton, J.P. Galloway (Eds.), Late Cenozoic History of the Interior Basins of Alaska and the Yukon. United States Geological Survey Circular, 1026, pp. 93-98.

Heinrich, H. 1988. Origin and consequences of cyclic ice rafting in the Northeast Atlantic Ocean during the past 130,000 years. Quaternary Research 29 (2), 142-152. http://doi.org/10.1016/0033-5894(88)90057-9.

Hemming, S.R. 2004. Heinrich events: massive late Pleistocene detritus layers of the North Atlantic and their global climate imprint. Reviews of Geophysics 42, RG1005. http://doi.org/10.1029/2003RG000128.

Hicock, S.R. 1988. Calcareous till facies north of Lake Superior, Ontario: implications for Laurentide ice streaming. Géographie Physique et Quaternaire 42 (2), 120-135.

Hicock, S.R. 1992. Global interactions and rheologic superposition in subglacial till near Bradtville, Ontario, Canada. Boreas, 21 (1), 73-88.

Hicock, S.R., Dreimanis, A. 1992. Deformation till in the Great Lakes region: implications for rapid flow along the south-centralmargin of the Laurentide Ice Sheet. Canadian Journal of Earth Sciences 29 (7), 1565-1579. .

Hindmarsh, R.C.A. 2009. Consistent generation of ice streams via thermos-viscous instabilities modulated by membrane stresses. Geophysical Research Letters 36 (6), doi: 10.1029/2008GL036877.

Hodgson, D.A. 1994. Episodic ice streams and ice shelves during retreat of the northwesternmost sector of the late Wisconsinan Laurentide Ice Sheet over the central Canadian Arctic Archipelago. Boreas 23 (1), 14-28.

Hoffman, J.S., Carlson, A.E., Winsor, K., Klinkhammer, G.P., LeGrande, A.N., Andrews, J.T., Strasser, J.C. 2012. Linking the 8.2 ka event and its freshwater forcing in the Labrador Sea. Geophysical Research Letters 39, L18703. http://doi.org/10.1002/grl.50111.

Hughes, T. 1977. West Antarctic ice streams. Reviews of Geophysics 15 (1), 1-46.

Hughes, P. D., Gibbard, P. L., Ehlers, J. 2013. Timing of glaciation during the last glacial cycle: Evaluating the concept of a global 'Last Glacial Maximum' (LGM). Earth-Science Reviews 125, 171-198. http://doi.org/10.1016/j.earscirev.2013.07.003.

Hughes, T., Denton, G.H., Grosswald, M.G. 1977. Was there a late-Wiirm Arctic ice sheet? Nature 266, 596-602. doi:10.1038/266596a0.

IPCC 2013. Summary for Policymakers. In: T.F. Stocker, D. Qin, G.-K. Plattner, M. Tignor, S.K. Allen, J. Boschung, A. Nauels, Y. Xia, V. Bex, P.M. Midgley (Eds.), Climate Change 2013: The Physical Science Basis. Contribution of Working Group I to the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, NY, USA.

Ives, J.D. 1957. Glaciation of the Torngat mountains, Northern Labrador. Arctic 10, 67-87.

Ives, J.D. 1978. The maximum extent of the Laurentide Ice Sheet along the East Coast of North America during the Last Glaciation. Arctic 31 (1), 24-53.

Ives, J.D., Andrews, J.T., Barry, R.G. 1975. Growth and decay of the Laurentide Ice Sheet and comparisons with Fenno-Scandinavia. Die Naturwissenschaften 62,118-125.

Jennings, A.E. 1993. The Quaternary history of Cumberland Sound, southeast Baffin Island: the marine evidence. Géographie Physique et Quaternaire, 47, 21-42.

Jennings, A.E., Tedesco, K.A., Andrews, J.T., Kirby, M.E. 1996. Shelf erosion and glacial ice proximity in the Labrador Sea during and after Heinrich events (H-3 or 4 to H-0) as shown by foraminifera. In: J.T. Andrews, W.E.N. Austin, H. Bergstrom, A.E. Jennings, (Eds.), Palaeoceanography of the North Atlantic Margins. Geological Society Special Publication No. 111, 29-49.

Jennings, A.E., Andrews, A., Pearce, C., Wilson, L., Ólfasdótttir, S. 2015. Detrital carbonate peaks on the Labrador shelf, a 13-7 ka template for freshwater forcing from the Hudson Strait outlet of the Laurentide Ice Sheet into the subpolar gyre. Quaternary Science Reviews 107, 62-80. http://doi.org/10.1016/j.quascirev.2014.10.022.

Josenhans, H.W., Zevenhuizen, J. 1990. Dynamics of the Laurentide Ice Sheet in Hudson Bay, Canada. Marine Geology 92, 1-26.

Josenhans, H., Lehman, S. 1999. Quaternary stratigraphy and glacial history of the Gulf of St. Lawrence, Canada. Canadian Journal of Earth Sciences, 36, 1327-1345. http://doi.org/10.1139/e99-030.

Kaplan, M.R. 1999. The last glaciation of the Cumberland Sound region, Baffin Island, Canada, based on glacial geology, cosmogenic dating, and numerical modeling. Unpublished Ph.D. Thesis, University of Colorado, Boulder, 206 pp.

Karrow, P.F., Calkin, P.E. 1985. Quaternary evolution of the Great Lakes. Geological Association of Canada Special Paper, 30, 258 pp.

Kennedy, K.E., Froese, D.G., Zazula, G.D., Lauriol, B. 2010. Last Glacial Maximum age for the northwest Laurentide maximum from the Eagle River spillway and delta complex, northern Yukon. Quaternary Science Reviews, 29, 1288-1300. http://doi.org/10.1016/j.quascirev.2010.02.015.

King, L.H. 1996. Late Wisconsinan ice retreat from the Scotian Shelf. Geological Society of America Bulletin, 108, 1056-1067.

Kirby, M.E., Andrews, J.T. 1999. Mid-Wisconsinan Laurentide Ice Sheet growth and decay: implications for Heinrich events 3 and 4. Paleoceanography 14 (2), 211-223.

Kirchner, N., Ahlkrona, J., Gowan, E.J., Lötstedt, P., Lea, J.M., Noormets, R., von Sydow, L., Dowdeswell, J.A., Benham, T. 2016. Shallow ice approximation, second order shallow ice approximation, and full Stokes models: A discussion of their roles in palaeo-ice sheet modelling and development. Quaternary Science Reviews 147, 136-147. http://doi.org/10.1016/j.quascirev.2016.01.013.

Kleman, J., Borgström, I. 1996. Reconstruction of palaeo‐ice sheets: the use of geomorphological data. Earth Surface Processes and Landforms 21 (10), 893-909.

Kleman, J., Applegate, P.J. 2014. Durations and propagation patterns of ice sheet instability events. Quaternary Science Reviews 92, 32-39. http://doi.org/10.1016/j.quascirev.2013.07.030.

Kleman, J., Fastook, J., Stroeven, A. 2002. Geologically and geomorphologically constrained numerical model of Laurentide Ice Sheet inception and build-up. Quaternary International 95-96, 87-98. http://doi.org/10.1016/S1040-6182(02)00030-7.

Kleman, J., Jansson, K., De Angelis, H., Stroeven, A.P., Hattestrand, C., Alm, G., Glasser, N.F. 2010. North American Ice Sheet build-up during the last glacial cycle, 115-21 kyr. Quaternary Science Reviews 29, 17-18. http://doi.org/10.1016/j.quascirev.2010.04.021.

Koerner, R.M. 1980. Instantaneous glacierization, the rate of albedo change, and feedback effects at the beginning of an Ice Age. Quaternary Research 13, 153-159. http://doi.org/10.1016/0033-5894(80)90025-3.

Krabbendam, M., Eyles, N., Putkinen, N., Bradwell, T., Arbelaez-Moreno, L. 2016. Streamlined hard beds formed by palaeo-ice streams: a review. Sedimentary Geology 338, 24-50. http://doi.org/10.1016/j.sedgeo.2015.12.007.

Lacelle, D., Lauroil, B., Zazula, G., Ghaleb, B., Utting, N., Clark, I.D. 2013. Timing of advance and basal condition of the Laurentide Ice Sheet during the last glacial maximum in the Richardson Mountains, NWT. Quaternary Research 80, 274-283. http://doi.org/10.1016/j.yqres.2013.06.001.

Lakeman, T. R., England, J. H. 2012. Palaeo-glaciological insights from the age and morphology of the Jesse moraine belt, western Canadian Arctic. Quaternary Science Reviews 47, 82-100. http://doi.org/10.1016/j.quascirev.2012.04.018.

Lakeman, T. R., England, J. H. 2013. Late Wisconsinan glaciation and postglacial relative sea-level change on western Banks Island, Canadian Arctic Archipelago. Quaternary Research 80, 99-112. http://doi.org/10.1016/yqres.2013.02.001.

Lambeck, K., Rouby, H., Purcell, A., Sun, Y., Sambridge, M. 2014. Sea level and global ice volumes from the last glacial maximum to the Holocene. PNAS 111, 15296-15303. http://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1411762111.

Lambeck, K., Purcell, A., Zhao, S. 2017. The North American Late Wisconsin ice sheet and mantle viscosity from glacial rebound analyses. Quaternary Science Reviews 158, 172-210. http://doi.org/10.1016/j.quascirev.2016.11.033.

Lambert, A., Courtier, N., James, T.S. 2006. Long-term monitoring by absolute gravimetry: tides to postglacial rebound. Journal of Geodynamics 41, 307-317. http://doi.org/10.1016/jog.2005.08.032.

Lamoureux, S.F., England, J.H. 2000. Late Wisconsinan glaciation of the central sector of the Canadian High Arctic. Quaternary Research 54, 182-188. http://doi.org/10.1016/qres.2000.2167.

Licciardi, J.M., Clark, P.U., Jenson, J.W., MacAyeal, D.R. 1998. Deglaciation of a soft-bedded Laurentide Ice Sheet. Quaternary Science Reviews, 17, 427-448. http://doi.org/10.1016/S0277-3791(97)00044-9.

Lowe, J.J., Ammann, B., Birks, H.H., Bjorck, S., Coope, G.R., Cwynar, L. Beaulieu, J-L., Mott, R.J., Peteet, D.M., Walker, M.J.C. 1994. Climatic changes in areas adjacent to the North Atlantic during the last glacial-interglacial transition (14-9 ka BP): a contribution to IGCP-253. Journal of Quaternary Science 9, 185-198. http://doi.org/10.1002/jqs.3390090215.

Løken, O.H. 1966. Baffin Island refugia older than 54,000 years. Science 153, 1378-1380.

MacAyeal, D. 1993. Binge/purge oscillations of the Laurentide ice sheet as a cause of the North Atlantic's Heinrich events. Paleoceanography 8 (6), 775-784.

MacLean, B., Blasco, S., Bennett, R., England, J., Rainey, W., Hughes-Clarke, J., Beaudoin, J. 2010. Ice keel seabed features in marine channels of the central Canadian Arctic Archipelago: evidence for former ice streams and iceberg scouring. Quaternary Science Reviews 29, 2280–2301. http://doi.org/10.1016/j.quascirev.2010.05.032.

Margold, M., Stokes, C.R., Clark, C.D., Kleman, J. 2015a. Ice streams in the Laurentide Ice Sheet: a new mapping inventory. Journal of Maps 11 (3), 380-395. http://doi.org/10.1080/17445647.2014.912036.

Margold, M., Stokes, C.R., Clark, C.D. 2015b. Ice streams in the Laurentide Ice Sheet: identification, characteristics and comparison to modern ice sheets. Earth-Science Reviews, 143, 117-146. http://doi.org/10.1016/j.earscirev.2015.01.011.

Marcott, S.A., Shakun, J.D., Clark, P.U., Mix, A.C. 2013. A reconstruction of regional and global temperature for the past 11,300 years. Science 339, 1198-1201. http://doi.org/10.1126/science.1228026.

Marsella, K.A., Bierman, P.R., Davis, P.T., Caffee, M.W. 2000. Cosmogenic 10Be and 26Al ages for the last glacial maximum, eastern Baffin Island, Arctic Canada. Geological Society of America Bulletin, 112, 1296-1312.

Marshall, S.J., Clarke, G.K.C., 1997a. A continuum mixture model of ice stream thermomechanics in the Laurentide Ice Sheet. 1. Theory. Journal of Geophyical Research Solid Earth,102 (B9), 20599–20613.

Marshall, S.J., Clarke, G.K.C. 1997b. A continuum mixture model of ice stream thermomechanics in the Laurentide Ice Sheet.2. Application to the Hudson Strait Ice Stream. Journal of Geophysical Research Solid Earth, 102 (B9), 20615-20637.

Marshall, S.J. 2002. Modelled nucleation centres of the Pleistocene ice sheets from an ice sheet model with subgrid parameterizations. Quaternary International 95-96, 125-137. http://doi.org/10.1016/S1040-6182(02)00033-2.

Marshall, S.J., Clark, P.U. 2002. Basal temperature evolution of North American ice sheets and implications for the 100-kyr cycle. Geophysical Research Letters, 29 (4), 2214. http://doi.org/10.1029/2002GL015192.

Marshall, S.J., Clarke, G.K.C., Dyke, A.S., Fisher, D.A. 1996. Geologic and topographic controls on fast flow in the Laurentide and Cordilleran Ice Sheets. Journal of Geophysical Research Solid Earth, 101 (B8), 17827-17839. http://doi.org/10.1029/96JB01180.

Marshall, S.J., Tarasov, L., Clarke, G.K.C., Peltier, W.R. 2000. Glaciological reconstruction of the Laurentide Ice Sheet: physical processes and modelling challenges. Canadian Journal of Earth Sciences 37 (5), 769-793. http://doi.org/10.1139/e99-113.

Mathews, W. H. 1974. Surface profiles of the Laurentide Ice Sheet in its marginal areas. Journal of Glaciology 13, 37-43.

Mayewski, P.A., Denton, G.H., Hughes, T.J. 1981. Late Wisconsin ice sheets of North America. In: G.H. Denton, T. Hughes, (Eds), The Last Great Ice Sheets. Wiley-Interscience, New York, pp. 67-178.

Mazzotti, S., Lambert, A., Henton, J., James, T.S., Courtier, N. 2011. Absolute gravity calibration of GPS velocities and glacial isostatic adjustment in mid-continent North America. Geophysical Research Letters 38. Doi. 10.1029/2011GL049846.

Miller, A.A.L., Fader, G.B.J., Moran, K. 2001. Late Wisconsinan ice advances, ice extent, and glacial regimes interpreted from seismic data, sediment physical properties, and foraminifera: Halibut Channel, Grand Banks of Newfoundland. In: T.K. Weddle, M.J. Retelle (Eds.), Deglacial History and Relative Sea-Level Changes, Northern New England and Adjacent Canada. Geological Society of America Special Paper 351, 51-107.

Miller, G.H., Dyke, A.S. 1974. Proposed extent of late Wisconsin ice on Baffin Island. Geology 2, 125-130.

Miller, G.H., Kaufman, D.S. 1990. Rapid fluctuations of the Laurentide Ice Sheet at the mouth of Hudson Strait: new evidence for ocean/ice-sheet interactions as a control on the Younger Dryas. Paleoceanography 5, 907-919.

Miller, G.H., Wolfe, A.P., Steig, E.J., Sauer, P.E., Kaplan, M.R., Briner, J.P. 2002. The Goldilocks dilemma: big ice, little ice, or “just right” ice in the Eastern Canadian Arctic. Quaternary Science Reviews 21, 33-48. http://doi.org/10.1016/S0277-3791(01)00085-3.

Mooers, H.D., Lehr, J.D. 1997. Terrestrial record of Laurentide Ice Sheet reorganization during Heinrich events. Geology 25 (11), 987-990.

Morrill, C., Ward, E.M., Wagner, A.J., Otto-Bliesner, B.L., Rosenbloom, N. 2014. Large sensitivity to freshwater forcing location in 8.2 ka simulations. Paleoceanography 29, 930-945. http://doi.org/10.1002/2014PA002669.

Mosher, D.C., Piper, D.J.W., Vilks, G.V., Aksu, A.E., Fader, G.B.J. 1989. Evidence for Wisconsinan glaciations in the Verrill Canyon area, Scotian Slope. Quaternary Research 31, 27-40. http://doi.org/10.1016/0033-5894(89)90083-5.

Murton, J.B., Frenchen, M., Maddy, D. 2007. Luminescence dating of mid- to Late Wisconsinan aeolian sand as a constraint on the last advance of the Laurentide Ice Sheet across the Tuktoyaktuk coastlands, western Arctic Canada. Canadian Journal of Earth Sciences, 44, 857-869. http://doi.org/10.1139/e07-015.

Murton, J.B., Bateman, M.D., Dallimore, S.R., Teller, J.T., Yang, Z. 2010. Identification of Younger Dryas outburst flood path from Lake Agassiz to the Arctic Ocean. Nature 464, 740-743. http://doi.org/10.1038/nature08954.

Murton, J.B, Bateman, M.D, Waller, R.I., Whiteman, C.A. 2015. Late Wisconsin glaciation of Hadwen and Summer islands, Tuktoyaktuk Coastlands, NWT, Canada. In: GEOQuébec2015: 7th Canadian Permafrost Conference, 20–23 September, 2015, Quebec City, Canada.

Nicholl, J.A.L., Hodell, D.A., Naafs, B.D.A., Hillaire-Marcel, C., Channell, J.E.T., Romero, O.E. 2012. A Laurentide outburst flooding event during the last interglacial period. Nature Geoscience 5 (12), 901-904. http://doi.org/10.1038/ngeo1622.

Nick, F.M., Vieli, A., Anderson, M.L., Joughin, I., Payne, A., Edwards, T.J., Pattyn, F., van de Wal, R.S.W. 2013. Future sea-level rise from Greenland’s main outlet glaciers in a warming climate. Nature 497, 235-238. http://doi.org/10.1038/nature12068.

Nixon, F. C., England, J. H. 2014. Expanded Late Wisconsinan ice cap and ice sheet margins in the western Queen Elizabeth Islands, Arctic Canada. Quaternary Science Reviews 91, 146-164. http://doi.org/10.1016/j.quascirev.2013.10.036.

Occhietti, S., Parent, M., Lajeunesse, P., Robert, F., Govare, E. 2011. Late Pleistocene-early Holocene decay of the Laurentide ice sheet in Quebec-Labrador. In: J. Ehlers, P.L. Gibbard, P.D. Hughes, P.D. (Eds.), Quaternary Glaciations - Extent and Chronology, vol. 15. Elsevier Science and Technology Books, Amsterdam, pp. 601-630.

Odell, N.E. 1933. The mountains of northern Labrador. Geographical Journal, 82 (3-4), 193-211.

O’Cofaigh, C., England, J., Zreda, M. 2000. Late Wisconsinan glaciation of southern Eureka Sound: evidence for extensive Innuitian ice in the Canadian high arctic during the last glacial maximum. Quaternary Science Reviews 19, 1319-1341. http://doi.org/10.1016/S0277-3791(99)00104-3.

Ó Cofaigh, C., Evans, D.J.A., Smith, I.R. 2010. Large-scale reorganization and sedimentation of terrestrial ice streams during late Wisconsinan Laurentide Ice Sheet deglaciation. Geological Society of America Bulletin 122 (5–6), 743-756. http://doi.org/10.1130/26476.1.

Patterson, C.J. 1997. Southern Laurentide ice lobes were created by ice streams: Des Moines lobe in Minnesota, USA. Sedimentary Geology 111, 249-261. http://doi.org/10.1016/S0037-0739(97)00018-3.

Patterson, C.J. 1998. Laurentide glacial landscapes: the role of ice streams. Geology, 26, 643-646.

Paterson, W.S.B. 1972. Laurentide Ice Sheet: estimated volumes during Late Wisconsin. Reviews of Geophysics and Space Physics, 10 (4), 885-917.

Pedersen, M.W., Ruetr, A., Schweger, C., Friebe, H., Staff, R.A., Kjeldsen, K.K., Mendoza, M.L.Z., Beaudoin, A.B., Zutter, C., Larsen, N.K., Potter, B.A., Nielsen, R., Rainville, R.A., Orlando, L., Meltzer, D.J., Kjaer, K.H., Willerslev, E. 2016. Postglacial viability and colonization in North America’s ice-free corridor. Nature 537, 45-49. http://doi.org/10.1038/nature19085.

Peltier, W.R. 1994. Ice age paleotopography. Science, 265, 195–201. http://doi.org/10.1126/science.265.5169.195.

Peltier, W.R. 2004. Global glacial isostasy and the surface of the ice-age earth: The ICE-5G (VM2) model and GRACE. Annual Reviews of Earth and Planetary Sciences 32, 111-149. http://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.earth.32.082503.144359.

Peltier, W.R., Argus, D.F., Drummond, R. 2015. Space geodesy constrains ice-age terminal deglaciation: the global ICE-6G_C (VM5a) model. Journal of Geophysical Research Solid Earth 120, 450-487. http://doi.org/10.1002/2014JB011176.

Piper, D.J.W., Skene, K.I, 1998. Latest Pleistocene ice-rafting events on the Scotian Margin (eastern Canada) and their relationship to Heinrich events. Palaeoceanography 13, 205–214. http://doi.org/10.1029/97PA03641.

Piper, D.J.W., Mudie, P.J., Fader, G.B., Josenhans, H.W., MacLean, B.,Vilks, G. 1990. Quaternary geology. In: M.J. Keen, G.L. Williams, (Eds.), Geology of the Continental Margin of Eastern Canada. Geological Survey of Canada, Geology of Canada, No. 2, 475-607.

Prest, V.K.1969. Retreat of Wisconsin and Recent ice in North America. Geological Survey of Canada Map, 1257A, scale 1:5 000 000.

Prest, V.K. 1984. The Late Wisconsinan glacier complex. In: R.J. Fulton (Ed.), Quaternary Stratigraphy of Canada - a Canadian contribution to IGCP Project 24. Geological Survey of Canada, Paper 84-10, pp. 22-36. .

Prest, V.K., Grant, D.R., Rampton, V.N. 1968. Glacial Map of Canada. Geological Survey of Canada Map, 1253A, scale 1:5 000 000.

Pritchard, H.D., Arthern, R.J., Vaughan, D.G., Edwards, L. 2009. Extensive dynamic thinning on the margins of the Greenland and Antarctic ice sheets. Nature 461, 971-975. http://doi.org/10.1038/nature08471.

Ramsay, W. 1931. Changes of sea level resulting from the increase and decrease of glaciations. Fennia 52, 1-62.

Rasmussen, S.O., Anderson, K.K., Svensson, A.M., Steffensen, J.P., Vinther, B.M., Clausen, H.B., Siggaard-Andersen, M.-L., Johnsen, S.J., Larsen, L.B., Dahl- Jensen, D., Bigler, M., Röthlisberger, R., Fischer, H., Goto-Azuma, K., Hansson, M.E., Ruth, U. 2006. A new Greenland ice core chronology for the last glacial termination. Journal of Geophysical Research 111, D06102. http://doi.org/10.1029/2005JD006079.

Ritz, C., Edwards, T.L., Durand, G., Payne, A.J., Peyaud, V., Hindmarsh, R.C.A. 2015. Potential sea-level rise from Antarctic ice-sheet instability constrained by observations. Nature 528, 115-118. http://doi.org/10.1038/nature16147.

Robel, A.A., Tziperman, E. 2016. The role of ice stream dynamics in deglaciation. Journal of Geophysical Research – Earth Surface 121, doi:10.1002/2016JF003937.

Ross, M., Campbell, J.E., Parent, M., Adams, R.S. 2009. Palaeo-ice streams and the subglacial landscape mosaic of the North American mid-continental prairies. Boreas 38 (3), 421-439. http://doi.org/10.1111/j.1502-3885.2009.00082.x.

Ross, M., Lajeunesse, P., Kosar, K.G.A. 2011. The subglacial record of northern Hudson Bay: insights into the Hudson Strait Ice Stream catchment. Boreas 40 (1), 73-91. http://doi.org/10.1111/j.1502-3885.2010.00176.x.

Ross, M., Utting, D.J., Lajeunesse, P., Kosar, K.G.A. 2012. Early Holocene deglaciation of northern Hudson Bay and Foxe Channel constrained by new radiocarbon ages and marine reservoir correction. Quaternary Research 78, 82-94. http://doi.org/10.1016/yqres.2012.03.001.

Schnikter, D., Belknap, D.F., Bacchus, T.S., Friez, J.K., Lusardi, B.A., Popek, D.M. 2001. Deglaciation of the Gulf of Maine. Geological Society of America Special Paper 351, 9–34.

Shapiro, B. , Drummond, A.J., Rambaut, A., Wilson, M.C., Matheus, P.E., Sher, A.V., Pybus, M.C., Gilbert, M.T.P., Barnes, I., Binladen, J., Willerslev, E., Hansen, A.J., Baryshnikov, G.F., Burns, J.A., Davydov, S., driver, J.C., Froese, D.G., Harington, C.R., Keddie, G., Kosintsev, P., Kunz, M.L., martin, L.D., Stephenson, R.O., Storer, J., Tedford, R., Zimov, S., Cooper, A. 2004. Rise and fall of the Beringian Steppe Bison. Science 306, 1561-1565. http://doi.org/10.1126/science.1101074.

Shaw, J. 2003. Submarine moraines in Newfoundland coastal waters: implications for deglaciation of Newfoundland and adjacent areas. Quaternary International 99-100, 115-134. http://doi.org/10.1016/S1040-6182(02)00125-8.

Shaw, J., Piper, D.J.W., Fader, G.B.J., King, E.L., Todd, B.J., Bell, T., Batterson, M.J., Liverman, D.G.E. 2006. A conceptual model of the deglaciation of Atlantic Canada. Quaternary Science Reviews 25, 2059-2081. http://doi.org/10.1016/j.quascirev.2006.03.002.

Shaw, J., Todd, B.J., Brushett, D., Parrott, D.R., Bell, T. 2009. Late Wisconsinan glacial landsystems on Atlantic Canadian shelves: new evidence from multibeam and single-beam sonar data. Boreas 38 (1), 146-159. http://doi.org/10.1111/j.1502-3885.2008.00042.x.

Shepherd, A., Ivins, E.R., Barletta, A.G., Bentley, V.R., Bettadpur, M.J., Briggs, S., Bromwich, K.H., Forsberg, D.H., Galin, R., Horwath, N., Jacobs, M., Joughin, S., King, I., Lenaerts, M.A., Li, J.T., Ligtenberg, J., Luckman, S.R., Luthcke, A., McMillan, S.B., Meister, M., Milne, R., Mouginot, G., Muir, J., Nicolas, A., Paden, J.P., Payne, J., Pritchard, A.J., Rignot, H., Rott, E., Sorensen, H., Scambos, L.S., Scheuchl, T.A., Schrama, B., Smith, E.J., Sundal, B., van Angelen, A.V., van de Berg, J.H., van den Broeke, W.J., Vaughan, M.R., Velicogna, D.G., Wahr, I., Whitehouse, J., Wingham, P.L., Yi, D.J., Young, D., Zwally, H.J. 2012. A reconciled estimate of ice-sheet mass balance. Science 338 (6111), 1183-1189. http://doi.org/10.1126/science.1228102.

Shilts, W.W. 1980. Flow patterns in the central North American ice sheet. Nature 286, 213-218. http://doi.org/10.1038/286213a0.

Shilts, W.W., Cunningham, C.M., Kaszycki, C.A. 1979. Keewatin Ice Sheet - re-evaluation of the traditional concept of the Laurentide Ice Sheet. Geology 537-541.

Simon, K., James, T.S., Forbes, D.L., Telka, A.M., Dyke, A.S., Henton, J.A. 2014. A relative sea-level history for Arviat, Nunavut, and implications for Laurentide ice sheet thickness west of Hudson Bay. Quaternary Research 82, 185-197. http://doi.org/10.1016/j.yqres.2014.04.002.

Smith, D.G., Fisher, T.G. 1993. Glacial Lake Agassiz: the northwestern outlet and palaeoflood. Geology 21, 9-12.

Stalker, A. 1977. The probable extent of classical Wisconsin ice in southern and central Alberta, Canadian Journal of Earth Sciences 14, 2614-2619.

Stea, R.R., Mott, R.J. 1998. Deglaciation of Nova Scotia: stratigraphy and chronology of lake sediment cores and buried organic sections. Géographie Physique et Quaternaire, 52, 3-21.

St-Onge, D.A. 1987. The Sangamonian stage and the Laurentide Ice Sheet. Géographie Physique et Quaternaire, 41 (2), 189-198.

Stokes, C.R., Clark, C.D., 1999. Geomorphological criteria for identifying Pleistocene ice streams. Annals of Glaciology 28 (1), 67-74. http://doi.org/10.3189/172756499781821625.

Stokes, C.R., Clark, C.D. 2001. Palaeo-ice streams. Quaternary Science Reviews 20, 1437-1457. http://doi.org/10.1016/S0277-3791(01)00003-8.

Stokes, C.R., Clark, C.D. 2003. The Dubawnt Lake palaeo-ice stream: evidence for dynamic ice sheet behaviour on the Canadian Shield and insights regarding the controls on ice-stream location and vigour. Boreas 32 (1), 263–279. http://doi.org/10.1080&sol;03009480310001155.

Stokes, C.R., Clark, C.D. 2004. Evolution of late glacial ice-marginal lakes on the northwestern Canadian Shield and their influence on the location of the Dubawnt Lake palaeo-ice stream. Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 215, 155-71. http://doi.org/10.1016/j.palaeo.2004.09.006.

Stokes, C.R., Tarasov, L. 2010. Ice streaming in the Laurentide Ice Sheet: a first comparison between data-calibrated numerical model output and geological evidence. Geophysical Research Letters 37, L01501. http://doi.org/10.1029/2009GL040990.

Stokes, C.R., Clark, C.D., Storrar, R. 2009. Major changes in ice stream dynamics during deglaciation of the north-western margin of the Laurentide Ice Sheet. Quaternary Science Reviews 28 (7-8), 721-738. http://doi.org/10.1016/j.quascirev.2008.07.019.

Stokes, C.R., Tarasov, L., Dyke, A.S., 2012. Dynamics of the North American Ice Sheet Complex during its inception and build-up to the Last Glacial Maximum. Quaternary Science Reviews 50, 86-104. http://doi.org/10.1016/j.quascirev.2012.07.009.

Stokes, C.R., Tarasov, L., Blomdin, R., Cronin, T., Fisher, T.G., Gyllencreutz, R., Hättestrand, C., Heyman, J., Hindmarsh, R.C.A., Hughes, A.L.C., Jakobsson, M., Kirchner, N., Livingstone, J.J., Margold, M., Murton, J.B., Noormets, R., Peltier, W.R., Peteet, D.M., Piper, D.J.W., Preusser, F., Renssen, H., Roberts, D.H., Roche, D.M., Saint-Ange, F., Stroeven, A.P., Teller, J.T. 2015. On the reconstruction of palaeo-ice sheets: recent advances and future challenges. Quaternary Science Reviews 125, 15-49. http://doi.org/10.1016/j.quascirev.2015.07.016.

Stokes, C.R., Margold, M., Clark, C.D., Tarasov, L. 2016. Ice stream activity scaled to ice sheet volume during Laurentide Ice Sheet deglaciation. Nature 530, 322-326. http://doi.org/10.1038/nature16947.

Storrar, R.D., Stokes, C.R., Evans, D.J.A. 2014. Increased channelization of subglacial drainage during deglaciation of the Laurentide Ice Sheet. Geology 42 (3), 239-242. http://doi.org/10.1130/G35092.1.

Stuiver, M., Reimer, P.J., and Reimer, R.W. 2017. CALIB 7.1 [WWW program] at http://calib.org, accessed 2017-2-1.

Sugden, D.E. 1977. Reconstruction of the morphology, dynamics and thermal characteristics of the Laurentide Ice Sheet at its maximum. Arctic and Alpine Research 9 (1), 21-47.

Sugden, D.E., Watts, S. 1977. Tors, felsenmeer and glaciation in northern Cumberland Peninsula, Baffin Island. Canadian Journal of Earth Sciences, 14, 2817-2823.

Svendsen, J., Alexanderson, H., Astakhov, V., Demidov, I., Julian, A., Funder, S., Gataulling, V., Henriksen, M., Hjort, C., Houmark-Nielsen, M., Hubberten, H., Ingulfsson, O., Jakobsson, M., Kjer, K., Larsen, E., Lokrantz, H., Lunkka, J., Lys, A., Mangerud, J., Matiouchkov, A., Murray, A., Muller, P., Niessen, F., Nikolskaya, O., Polyak, L., Saarnisto, M., Siegert, C., Siegert, M., Spielhagen, R., Ruedige, S. 2004. Late Quaternary ice sheet history of Northern Eurasia. Quaternary Science Reviews 23, 1229-1271. http://doi.org/10.1016/j.quascirev.2003.12.008.

Tanner, W.F. 1965. Cause and development of an Ice Age. The Journal of Geology 73, 413-429.

Tarasov, L., Peltier, W.R. 2005. Arctic freshwater forcing of the Younger Dryas cold reversal. Nature 435, 662-665. http://doi.org/10.1038/nature03617.

Tarasov, L., Dyke, A.S., Neal, R.M., Peltier, W.R. 2012. A data-calibrated distribution of deglacial chronologies for the North American ice complex from glaciological modelling. Earth and Planetary Science Letters 315-316, 30-40. http://doi.org/10.1016/j.epsl.2011.09.010.

Teller, J.T. 2013. Lake Agassiz during the Younger Dryas. Quaternary Research 80, 361-369. http://doi.org/10.1016/j.yqres.2013.06.011.

Teller, J.T., Thorleifson, L.H. 1983. The Lake Agassiz-Lake Superior connection. In: J.T. Teller, L. Clayton, (Eds.), Glacial Lake Agassiz. Geological Association of Canada Special Paper, 26, 261-290.

Thorleifson, L.H., Wyatt, P.H.,Warman, T.A. 1993. Quaternary stratigraphy of the Severn and Winisk drainage basins, northern Ontario. Geological Survey of Canada Bulletin 442, 59 pp.

Todd, B.J., Valentine, P.C., Longva, O., Shaw, J. 2007. Glacial landforms on German Bank, Scotian Shelf: evidence for Late Wisconsinan ice-sheet dynamics and implications for the formation of De Geer moraines. Boreas 36 (2), 148-169. http://doi.org/10.1111/j.1502-3885.2007.tb01189.x.

Tushingham, A. M., Peltier, W. R. 1991. ICE-3G: A new global model of late Pleistocene deglaciation based upon geophysical predictions of post-glacial relative sea level change: Journal of Geophysical Research 96, 4497-4523.

Tyrell, J.B. 1898. The glaciation of north-central Canada. Journal of Geology 6, 147-160.

Ullman, D.J., Carlson, A.E., LeGrande, A.N., Anslow, F.S., Moore, A.K., Caffee, M., Syverson, K.M., Licciardi, J.M. 2015a. Southern Laurentide ice-sheet retreat synchronous with rising boreal summer insolation. Geology, 43 (1), 23-26. http://doi.org/10.1130/G36179.1.

Ullman, D.J., Carlson, A.E., Anslow, F.S., LeGrande, A.N., Licciardi, J.M. 2015b. Laurentide ice-sheet instability during the last deglaciation. Nature Geoscience 8, 534-537. http://doi.org/10.1038/ngeo2463.

Ullman, D.J., Carlson, A.E., Hostetler, S.W., Clark, P.U., Cuzzone, J., Milne, G.A., Winsor, K., Caffee, M. 2016. Final Laurentide ice-sheet deglaciation and Holocene climate-sea level change. Quaternary Science Reviews 152, 49-59. http://doi.org/10.1016/j.quascirev.2016.09.014.

Van den Broeke, M., Bamber, J., Ettema, J., Rignot, E., Schrama, E., van de Berg, W.J., van Meijgaard, E., Velicogna, I., Wouters, B. 2009. Partitioning recent Greenland mass loss. Science 326, 984-986. http://doi.org/10.1126/science.1178176.

Veillette, J.J., Dyke, A.S., Roy, M. 1999. Ice-flow evolution of the Labrador Sector of the Laurentide Ice Sheet: a review, with new evidence from northern Quebec. Quaternary Science Reviews 18 (8-9), 993-1019. http://doi.org/10.1016/S0277-3791(98)00076-6.

Vettoretti, G., Peltier,W.R. 2013. Last Glacial Maximum ice sheet impacts on North Atlantic climate variability: the importance of a sea ice lid. Geophysical Research Letters 40, 6378–6383. http://doi.org/10.1002/2013GL058486.

Vincent, J.-S. 1982. The Quaternary history of Banks Island, NWT, Canada. Géographie Physique et Quaternaire, 36, 209-232.

Vincent, J.-S., Prest, V.K. 1987. The early Wisconsinan history of the Laurentide Ice Sheet. Géographie Physique et Quaternaire 41 (2), 199-213.

Wickert, A.D. 2016. Reconstruction of North American drainage basins and river discharge since the Last Glacial Maximum. Earth Surface Dynamics 4, 831-869. http://doi.org/10.5194/esurf-4-831-2016.

Winsborrow, M.C.M., Clark, C.D., Stokes, C.R. 2004. Ice streams of the Laurentide Ice Sheet. Géographie Physique et Quaternaire 58 (2–3), 269-280.

Winsborrow, M.C.M., Clark, C.D., Stokes, C.R. 2010. What controls the location of ice streams? Earth-Science Reviews 103, 45-59. http://doi.org/10.1016/j.earscirev.2010.07.003.

Wright, H.E. 1973. Tunnel valleys, glacial surges, and subglacial hydrology of the Superior Lobe, Minnesota. In: R.F. Black, R.B. Goldthwait, H.B. Willman (Eds.), The Wisconsinan Stage. Geological Society of America Memoirs. Geological Society of America, pp. 251-276.

Downloads

Published

15-09-2017

How to Cite

1.
Stokes C. Deglaciation of the Laurentide Ice Sheet from the Last Glacial Maximum. CIG [Internet]. 2017 Sep. 15 [cited 2024 Mar. 19];43(2):377-428. Available from: https://publicaciones.unirioja.es/ojs/index.php/cig/article/view/3237

Issue

Section

Articles